知识大全急求一篇有关遗产税的英文文献，不需要中文翻译，有的话上传到知道，万分感谢

Posted 2022-04-11 文献

篇首语：知道如何活用知识最重要，知道知识的来龙去脉次之，拥有知识再次之。本文由小常识网(cha138.com)小编为大家整理，主要介绍了知识大全急求一篇有关遗产税的英文文献，不需要中文翻译，有的话上传到知道，万分感谢相关的知识，希望对你有一定的参考价值。

急求一篇有关遗产税的英文文献，不需要中文翻译，有的话上传到知道，万分感谢！

亲，文献已给你上传，请直接下载，给你找了一篇较短的，请自行翻译，如有其它问题，请追问，还望采纳

作者：Pratten, Cliff 刊名：Economic Affairs 出版日期：2006 卷号：Vol.26 期号：No.3 页码：74-76

题名：Pratten C. Gordon Brown Counts Dead Children: The True Impact Of Inheritance Tax[J]. Economic Affairs, 2006, 26(3): 74-76.

求一篇有关“石墨”的外文文献，另外加上该文献的中文翻译（中文3000字）跪求十分感谢！

答案:当我想你的时候,你会不会也刚好正在想我.

求一篇5000字左右的英文文献(最好是经济或贸易相关)并附上中文翻译,万分感谢!

楼上的英文文献根本就是google下面的华文文献，不顺的。。。
:en.wikipedia./wiki/Trade
:zh.wikipedia./wiki/%E8%B2%BF%E6%98%93
Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both. Trade is also called merce. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade beeen o traders is called bilateral trade, while trade beeen more than o traders is called multilateral trade.
Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisation and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading for other products. Trade exists beeen regions because different regions have a parative advantage in the production of some tradable modity, or because different regions\' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices beeen locations benefits both locations.
Trading can also refer to the action performed by traders and other market agents in the financial markets.
Trade originated with the start of munication in prehistoric times. Trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and services from each other before the innovation of the modern day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance merce from circa 150,000 years ago.[1]
Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history. There is evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint during the stone age. Materials used for creating jewelry were traded with Egypt since 3000 BC. Long-range trade routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BC, when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling across the Mediterranean Sea, and as far north as Britain for sources of tin to manufacture bronze. For this purpose they established trade colonies the Greeks called emporia. From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including China. Roman merce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation neork that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy.
The fall of the Roman empire, and the sueeding Dark Ages brought instability to Western Europe and a near collapse of the trade neork. Nevertheless some trade did our. For instance, Radhanites were a medieval guild or group (the precise meaning of the word is lost to history) of Jewish merchants who traded beeen the Christians in Europe and the Muslims of the Near East.
The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade route known as the Silk Road after the 4th century AD up to the 8th century AD, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centeres in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia.
From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe, while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading cities that maintained a trade monopoly over most of Northern Europe and the Baltic, beeen the 13th and 17th centuries.
Vasco da Gama restarted the European Spice trade in 1498. Prior to his sailing around Africa, the flow of spice into Europe was controlled by Islamic powers, especially Egypt. The spice trade was of major economic importance and helped spur the Age of Exploration. Spices brought to Europe from distant lands were some of the most valuable modities for their weight, sometimes rivaling gold.
In the 16th century, Holland was the centre of free trade, imposing no exchange controls, and advocating the free movement of goods. Trade in the East Indies was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century, the Netherlands in the 17th century, and the British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire developed regular trade links across both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. It criticised Mercantilism, and argued that economic specialisation could benefit nations just as much as firms. Since the division of labour was restricted by the size of the market, he said that countries having aess to larger markets would be able to divide labour more efficiently and thereby bee more productive. Smith said that he considered all rationalisations of import and export controls "dupery", which hurt the trading nation at the expense of specific industries.
In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, formerly the world\'s largest pany, became bankrupt, partly due to the rise of petitive free trade.
In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong, in the famous theory of parative advantage. In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered the most counterintuitive in economics:
When an inefficient producer sends the merchandise it produces best to a country able to produce it more efficiently, both countries benefit.
The ascendancy of free trade was primarily based on national advantage in the mid 19th century. That is, the calculation made was whether it was in any particular country\'s self-interest to open its borders to imports.
John Stuart Mill proved that a country with monopoly pricing power on the international market could manipulate the terms of trade through maintaining tariffs, and that the response to this might be reciprocity in trade policy. Ricardo and others had suggested this earlier. This was taken as evidence against the universal doctrine of free trade, as it was believed that more of the economic surplus of trade would arue to a country following reciprocal, rather than pletely free, trade policies. This was followed within a few years by the infant industry scenario developed by Mill promoting the theory that government had the "duty" to protect young industries, although only for a time necessary for them to develop full capacity. This became the policy in many countries attempting to industrialise and out-pete English exporters. Milton Freidman later continued this vein of thought, showing that in a few circumstances tariffs might be beneficial to the host country; but never for the world at large.[2]
The Great Depression was a major economic recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s. During this period, there was a great drop in trade and other economic indicators.
The lack of free trade was considered by many as a principal cause of the depression. Only during the World War II the recession ended in United States. Also during the war, in 1944, 44 countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement, intended to prevent national trade barriers, to avoid depressions. It set up rules and institutions to regulate the international political economy: the International Moary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (later divided into the World Bank and Bank for International Settlements). These anisations became operational in 1946 after enough countries ratified the agreement. In 1947, 23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade.
Free trade advanced further in the late 20th century and early 2000s:
1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal trade in goods and labour.
January 1, 1994 NAFTA took effect
1994 The GATT Marrakech Agreement specified formation of the WTO.
January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization was created to facilitate free trade, by mandating mutual most favoured nation trading status beeen all signatories.
EC was transformed into the European Union, which acplished the Economic and Monary Union (EMU) in 2002, through introducing the Euro , and creating this way a real single market beeen 13 member states as of January 1, 2007.
2005, the Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed; It includes the United States and the Dominican Republic.
[edit] Development of money
Main article: History of money
The first instances of money were objects with intrinsic value. This is called modity money and includes any monly-available modity that has intrinsic value; historical examples include pigs, rare seashells, whale\'s teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread was used as an early form of money. In Mexico under Montezuma cocoa beans were money.
Currency was introduced as a standardised money to facilitate a wider exchange of goods and services. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent modities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years.
Numismatists have examples of coins from the earliest large-scale societies, although these were initially unmarked lumps of precious metal.[3]
Ancient Sparta minted coins from iron to discourage its citizens from engaging in foreign trade.
The system of modity money in many instances evolved into a system of representative money. In this system, the material that constitutes the money itself had very little intrinsic value, but noheless such money achieves significant market value through scarcity or controlled supply.
[edit] Current trends
[edit] Doha rounds
Main article: Doha round
The Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations aims to lower barriers to trade around the world, with a focus on making trade fairer for developing countries. Talks have been hung over a divide beeen the rich, developed countries, and the major developing countries (represented by the G20). Agricultural subsidies are the most significant issue upon which agreement has been hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there was much agreement on trade facilitation and capacity building.
The Doha round began in Doha, Qatar, and negotiations have subsequently continued in: Cancún, Mexico; Geneva, Switzerland; and Paris, France and Hong Kong.
[edit] China
Beginning around 1978, the government of the People\'s Republic of China (PRC) began an experiment in economic reform. Previously the Communist nation had employed the Soviet-style centrally planned economy, with limited results. They would now utilise a more market-oriented economy, particularly in the so-called Special Economic Zones located in the Guangdong, Fujian, and Hainan. This reform has been spectacularly suessful. By 2004, the GDP of the nation has quadrupled since 1978 and foreign trade exceeded USD 1 trillion. As of 2005, China had bee the 3rd largest exporter behind Germany and the United States. This ourred in spite of the backlash from the shootings following Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The PRC maintains a USD 29 billion trade surplus, and is rapidly being a leader in industrial manufacturing.
In 1991 the PRC joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation group, a trade-promotion forum. More recently, in 2001 they also joined the World Trade Organization.
International trade is the exchange of goods and services across national borders. In most countries, it represents a significant part of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance have increased in recent centuries, mainly because of Industrialisation, advanced transportation, globalisation, multinational corporations, and outsourcing. In fact, it is probably the increasing prevalence of international trade that is usually meant by the term "globalisation".
Empirical evidence for the suess of trade can be seen in the contrast beeen countries such as South Korea, which adopted a policy of export-oriented industrialisation, and India, which historically had a more closed policy (although it has begun to open its economy, as of 2005). South Korea has done much better by economic criteria than India over the past fifty years, though its suess also has to do with effective state institutions.
Trade sanctions against a specific country are sometimes imposed, in order to punish that country for some action. An embargo, a severe form of externally imposed isolation, is a blockade of all trade by one country on another. For example, the United States has had an embargo against Cuba for over 40 years.
Although there are usually few trade restrictions within countries, international trade is usually regulated by governmental quotas and restrictions, and often taxed by tariffs. Tariffs are usually on imports, but sometimes countries may impose export tariffs or subsidies. All of these are called trade barriers. If a government removes all trade barriers, a condition of free trade exists. A government that implements a protectionist policy establishes trade barriers.
The fair trade movement, also known as the trade justice movement, promotes the use of labour, environmental and social standards for the production of modities, particularly those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the First World.
Standards may be voluntarily adhered to by importing firms, or enforced by governments through a bination of employment and mercial law. Proposed and practiced fair trade policies vary widely, ranging from the monly adhered to prohibition of goods made using slave labour to minimum price support schemes such as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-governmental anizations also play a role in promoting fair trade standards by serving as independent monitors of pliance with fairtrade labelling requirements.
Organization of trade
Patterns of anizing and administering trade include:
State control - trade centrally controlled by government planning.
Laws regulating Trade and establishing a framework such as trade law, tariffs, support for intellectual property, opposition to dumping.
Guild control - trade controlled by private business associations holding either de facto or government-granted power to exclude new entrants.
In contemporary times, the language has evolved to business and professional anizations, often controlled by academia. For example in many states, a person may not practice the professions of engineering, law, law enforcement, medicine, and teaching unless they have a college degree and, in some cases, a license.
Free enterprise - trade without significant central controls; market participants engage in trade based on their own individual assessments of risk and reward, and may enter or exit a given market relatively unimpeded.
Infrastructure in support of trade, such as banking, stock market,
Technology in support of trade such as electronic merce, vending machines.
[edit] International anizations
European Common Market
GATT = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/WTO [World Trade Organization]
G8
IMF = International Moary Fund
OPEC = Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
[edit] Free trade areas
Free trade anizations or free trade areas
European Free Trade Association
Free Trade Area of the Americas
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)
Union of South American Nations
[edit] United Nations umbrella
UNCTAD = United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
ITC = International Trade Centre
[edit] Types of trade
Commodities
Staples
Luxuries
Slave trade
International trade
Arms trade
Wholesaling
Retailer
Stock exchange
Fair Trade
[edit] See also
Look up trade in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Market Segmentation Index
Common market
List of international trade ics
Natural economy
Offshore outsourcing
Offshoring
Public exchange
Trade barrier
Trade facilitation
Trade route
Trade statistics
Trade war
Trading blows
Silent trade
Roman merce
The Silk Route, Amber Road and other trade routes
slave trade, fur trade, cod trade
The rise of banking
History of international trade
Merchant adventurers and trading panies: British East India Company, Muscovy Company, Virginia Company, Hudson\'s Bay Company and others
Mercantilism
Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution
Capitalism
Innovations in transport
Colonialism and neo-colonialism
Commodities, goods and intellectual property
E-merce
Globalisation
Shopgrifting
贸易是自愿的货品或服务交换。贸易也被称为商业。贸易是在一个巿场里面进行的。最原始的贸易形式是以物易物，即直接交换货品或服务。现代的贸易则普遍以一种媒介作讨价还价，如金钱。金钱的出现(以及后来的信用证、钞票以及非实体金钱)大大简化和促进了贸易。两个贸易者之间的贸易称为双边贸易，多于两个贸易者的则称为多边贸易。贸易出现的原因众多。由于劳动力的专门化，个体只会从事一个小范畴的工作，所以他们必须以贸易来获取生活的日用品。两个地区之间的贸易往往是因为一地在生产某产品上有相对优势，如有较佳的技术、较易获取原材料等。
国际贸易
公平贸易
反不正当竞争
国内贸易
贸易法
WTO
关税
双边贸易
多边贸易
走私

求一篇关于“生化分离工程”的英文文献及其中文翻译，谢谢

e class of insects only to the majority. Of these, all wh

求一篇有关华法林的英文pdf文献以及其中文翻译

英文文章倒是不少，翻译的倒是不多只能说有些中文文献是根据外文结论来的

求PLC相关英文文献带中文翻译~急需~可加分200

Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of a PLC controller. CPU itself is usually one of the microcontrollers. Aforetime these were 8-bit microcontrollers such as 8051, and now these are 16-and 32-bit microcontrollers. Unspoken rule is that you’ll find mostly Hitachi and Fujicu microcontrollers in PLC controllers by Japanese makers, Siemens in European controllers, and Motorola microcontrollers in American ones. CPU also takes care of munication, interconnectedness among other parts of PLC controllers, program execution, memory operation, overseeing input and setting up of an output. PLC controllers have plex routines for memory checkup in order to ensure that PLC memory was not damaged (memory checkup is done for safety reasons).Generally speaking, CPU unit makes a great number of check-ups of the PLC controller itself so eventual errors would be discovered early. You can simply look at any PLC controller and see that there are several indicators in the form. of light diodes for error signalization.
System memory (today mostly implemented in FLASH technology) is used by a PLC for a process control system. Aside form. this operating system it also contains a user program translated forma ladder diagram to a binary form. FLASH memory contents can be changed only in case where user program is being changed. PLC controllers were used earlier instead of PLASH memory and have had EPROM memory instead of FLASH memory which had to be erased with UV lamp and programmed on programmers. With the use of FLASH technology this process was greatly shortened. Reprogramming a program memory is done through a serial cable in a program for application development.
User memory is divided into blocks having special functions. Some parts of a memory are used for storing input and output status. The real status of an input is stored either as “1”or as “0”in a specific memory bit/ each input or output has one corresponding bit in memory. Other parts of memory are used to store variable contents for variables used in used program. For example, time value, or counter value would be stored in this part of the memory.
PLC controller can be reprogrammed through a puter (usual way), but also through manual programmers (consoles). This practically means that each PLC controller can programmed through a puter if you have the sofare needed for programming. Today’s transmission puters are ideal for reprogramming a PLC controller in factory itself. This is of great importance to industry. Once the system is corrected, it is also important to read the right program into a PLC again. It is also good to check from time to time whether program in a PLC has not changed. This helps to avoid hazardous situations in factory rooms (some automakers have established munication neorks which regularly check programs in PLC controllers to ensure execution only of good programs).
Almost every program for programming a PLC controller possesses various useful options such as: forced switching on and off of the system input/outputs (I/O lines), program follow up in real time as well as documenting a diagram. This documenting is necessary to understand and define failures and malfunctions. Programmer can add remarks, names of input or output devices, and ments that can be useful when finding errors, or with system maintenance. Adding ments and remarks enables any technician (and not just a person who developed the system) to understand a ladder diagram right away. Comments and remarks can even quote precisely part numbers if replacements would be needed. This would speed up a repair of any problems that e up due to bad parts. The old way was such that a person who developed a system had protection on the program, so nobody aside from this person could understand how it was done. Correctly documented ladder diagram allows any technician to understand thoroughly how system functions.
Electrical supply is used in bringing electrical energy to central processing unit. Most PLC controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. On some PLC controllers you’ll find electrical supply as a separate module. Those are usually bigger PLC controllers, while small and medium series already contain the supply module. User has to determine how much current to take from I/O module to ensure that electrical supply provides appropriate amount of current. Different types of modules use different amounts of electrical current.
This electrical supply is usually not used to start external input or output. User has to provide separate supplies in starting PLC controller inputs because then you can ensure so called “pure” supply for the PLC controller. With pure supply we mean supply where industrial environment can not affect it damagingly. Some of the smaller PLC controllers supply their inputs with voltage from a small supply source already incorporated into a PLC.
从结构上分，PLC分为固定式和组合式（模块式）两种。固定式PLC包括CPU板、I/O板、显示面板、内存块、电源等，这些元素组合成一个不可拆卸的整体。模块式PLC包括CPU模块、I/O模块、内存、电源模块、底板或机架，这些模块可以按照一定规则组合配置。
在使用者看来，不必要详细分析CPU的内部电路，但对各部分的工作机制还是应有足够的理解。CPU的控制器控制CPU工作，由它读取指令、解释指令及执行指令。但工作节奏由震荡信号控制。运算器用于进行数字或逻辑运算，在控制器指挥下工作。寄存器参与运算，并存储运算的中间结果，它也是在控制器指挥下工作。CPU速度和内存容量是PLC的重要参数，它们决定着PLC的工作速度，IO数量及软件容量等，因此限制着控制规模。
PLC使用系统存储器（现在大部分采用闪存技术了）用于过程控制系统。除了这个操作系统之外，它还包括一个由梯形图翻译成而进制形式的用户程序。快擦型存储器（FLASH memory）的内容只有在改变用户程序的时候可以被改变。PLC控制器比快擦型存储器使用得更早，EPROM存储器比快擦型存储器也更早，快擦型存储器必须用紫外线（UV，Ultra-Violet Ray）灯擦除，并在编程器上进行编程。由于快擦型存储器技术的应用，使得这个过程大大缩短了。在应用程序开发中，通过一个串行电缆可以对程序存储器进行重新编程。
用户存储器被分成具有特殊功能的块。一部分存储器用来存储输入和输出状态。一个输入的实际状态存储状态存储在专用存储器位上，为“1”或者“0”。每一个输入和输出在存储器中都有一个相应的位。另外一部分存储器用来存储用户程序中的变量的内容。例如，定时器值，或者记数器值存放在存储器的这个部分。
PLC控制器可以通过计算机（通常方式）重新编程，但是也可以通过人工编程器9控制台）编程。实际上，这意味着，如果你有编程所需要的软件，早期PLC控制器可以通过计算机进行编程。今天的传输计算机是工厂自己对PLC控制器进行重新编程的理想设备。这对于工业企业来说是非常重要的。一旦系统修改结束，将正确的程序重新读入PLC控制器也是非常重要的。定期检查PLC中的程序是否改变是非常好的事情。这有助于避免车间发生危险情况（一些汽车制造商已经建立了通信网络，可以定期检查PLC中的程序，以保证运行的程序都是正确的）。
几乎所有用于为PLC控制器编程的程序都拥有各种不同的选项，例如系统输入/输出（I/O线）的强制开关，程序实时跟踪以及图表验证。图表验证对于理解、定义失败和故障非常必要。程序员可以添加标记，书日和输出设备名称，以及对于查找错误或者对于系统维护很有用的注释。添加注释和标记可以使技术人员（不仅仅是开发人员）很快理解梯形图。注释和标记甚至还可以准确地引用零件号，如果需要更换零件的话。这将加快由于损坏零件而引起的任何问题的修理速度。响应的旧方法是这样的，开发系统的人必须保护这个程序，他旁边再没有人知道系统是怎样完成的。正确的、备有证明文件的梯形图使任何技术人员都能彻底理解系统的功能。
电源是为中央处理单元提供电源的。大部分PLC控制器的工作电压为24VDC或者220VAC。在有些PLC控制器上，你可以看见作为独立模块的电源。用户必须确定从I/O模块取出多大电流来保证电源提供适当的电流。不同的模块使用不同的电流量。
该电源一般不用于启动外部输入或输出。用户必须提供独立的电源来启动PLC控制器的输入和输出，因为这样可以保证PLC控制器的所谓“纯电源”。使用纯电源意味着工业环境中的电源不会严重影响它。有些较小的PLC控制器从与PLC控制器集成在一起的小电源为它们的输入提供电压源。
你要的不知是不是这个...希望帮得了你...

急求与银行效益相关的英文文献（带中文翻译）！

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求一篇英文文献翻译急需要的话可以悬赏100分

不好弄自己搜吧

求有关光学测量的英文文献和中文翻译（急！）

可以去看网站搜下。
百度又很多资源的。

知识大全 急求一篇有关遗产税的英文文献，不需要中文翻译，有的话上传到知道，万分感谢